Blue Snail Seen Once Again in Israel

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Enquiry Article

Early evidence of regal purple dyed textile from Timna Valley (Israel)

• Naama Sukenik,
• David Iluz,
• Zohar Amar,
• Alexander Varvak,
• Orit Shamir,
• Erez Ben-Yosef

ten

• Published: Jan 28, 2021
• https://doi.org/10.1371/periodical.pone.0245897

Figures

Abstruse

In the context of a wide study aimed at examining dyeing technologies in the Timna textiles drove, iii samples of prestigious fibers dyed with murex sea snail were identified. Our identification is based on the presence of 6-monobromoindigotin and 6,6-dibromoindigotin components (detected using HPLC analysis), which is considered unequivocal evidence for the use of murex-derived royal dyestuff. Furthermore, past comparing the belittling results with those obtained in a series of controlled dyeing experiments nosotros were able to shed more light on the specific species used in the dyeing process and glean insights into the ancient dyeing engineering. The samples originated from excavations at the extensive Fe Age copper smelting site of "Slaves' Hill" (Site 34), which is tightly dated past radiocarbon to the late 11^th–early 10^th centuries BCE. While evidence for the important part of purple dyes in the ancient Mediterranean goes back to the Middle Bronze Age (early 2^nd millennium BCE), finds of dyed textiles are extremely rare, and those from Timna are the oldest currently known in the Southern Levant. In conjunction with other observations of the very high quality of the Timna textiles, this provides an exceptional opportunity to address questions related to social stratification and system of the nomadic society operating the mines (early Edom), the "mode" of elite in the region during the early Iron Historic period, trade connections, technological capabilities, and more.

Citation: Sukenik Northward, Iluz D, Amar Z, Varvak A, Shamir O, Ben-Yosef East (2021) Early evidence of royal purple dyed cloth from Timna Valley (State of israel). PLoS ONE 16(1): e0245897. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245897

Editor: Andrea Zerboni, Universita degli Studi di Milano, Italian republic

Received: September 26, 2020; Accepted: January eight, 2021; Published: January 28, 2021

Copyright: © 2022 Sukenik et al. This is an open access commodity distributed under the terms of the Creative Eatables Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in whatever medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Data files.

Funding: The research was supported by funding by the Israel Scientific discipline Foundation (Grant 1143/19; 1880/17). The funders had no role in written report pattern, data collection and assay, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist

Introduction

Early on atomic number 26 age textiles from Timna Valley

Textile dyeing has been practiced since prehistoric times, using dyes that are extracted from both plant and animal sources. The color of textiles provides a window into various aspects of ancient societies, including the role of textile dyeing and technological achievements, fashion, social stratification, agronomics and trade connections [one,2]. However, textiles are rare in the archaeological tape. Like whatsoever perishable organic fabric, they are normally subject to rapid decomposition and their preservation requires special conditions to forestall destruction by microorganisms [one,3]. Such conditions exist in the ancient copper-ore district of the Timna Valley (southern Israel). Starting in 2013, excavations in several copper production sites in the region by the Central Timna Valley Projection [4,5] uncovered dozens of fragments of dyed textiles, which currently constitute the largest Iron Historic period assemblage in the Southern Levant [half dozen]. This rare assemblage from Timna provides a window into aspects of past societies that are usually hardly visible in the archaeological research. Focusing on the dyeing technologies, we practical Loftier Pressure level Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) analyses to identify organic dyestuff; we institute three items that were dyed with true purple, which is based on extracts from the murex sea snail. Truthful purple—besides known as 'royal royal'—was considered the most prestigious dye for textiles in many ancient societies. The finds from Timna currently constitute the earliest concrete bear witness on dyed fiber of truthful purple in the Southern Levant. Their context—in a marginal region inhabited by semi-nomadic tribes, and within debris of copper smelting activities—sheds new light on the society that operated the mines at the plow of the 1^st millennium BCE, with implications for our understanding of merchandise and economy in the broader Southern Levantine region during this period.

True purple in antiquity

True imperial was produced primarily from three species of sea mollusks of the Muricidae family, which were mutual in the Mediterranean Ocean: Hexaplex trunculus (Murex trunculus), Bolinus brandaris (Murex brandaris) and Stramonita haemastoma (Thais haemastoma) (Fig 1). This is in contrast to the "simulated purple" dye that was manufactured using various techniques that were based on much cheaper materials than the dyes from the bounding main snail [7,8]. True purple does non fade hands (every bit described by the Roman Period author Plutarch [9]). Together with the high complexity of the dyeing process, the small quantity of dyestuff that each snail contains (0.9 g on average in H. trunculus, for example [x]), information technology is easy to understand how purple textiles turned into an object of desire and the color itself into a symbol of dignity [xi–xiii]. The true purple colors range in shades from purplish-carmine to violet-blue. Dyeing is based on cloth extracted from the snail's hypobranchial gland (located under the mollusc's mantle [14]), and the exact shade depends on dissimilar parameters, such as the chemical precursors compounds of each snail species, the dyeing process, and the levels of oxygen and lite that the dye is exposed to [15]. The dyeing procedure using murex was a sophisticated, multi-phase procedure [15]. Information technology was more complex than dyeing techniques based on plants: The snail-harvest [15,16] and the extraction of the gland from the snail required cognition of biological science and much more than efforts than collecting plants in the field [17–xix]; murex-based dyeing must take identify shut to the site from which the snails originate, because the freshness of the textile has a significant issue on the results [19–22]; and finally, the dyeing process is long and involves biochemical, enzymatic and photochemical reactions, and requires reduction and oxidation processes that probably took several days [19].

Considering the purple dyeing technology is no longer practiced [10], our noesis is based on textual sources similar the clarification of Pliny the Elder (Plinius, NH: Nine; see also [19,23]), and inferences from traditional indigo dyeing, which although simpler, involves similar processes (such every bit the ones related to redox and alkalinity conditions) and is still practiced today in dissimilar parts of the world [18,24]. Experimental dyeing besides provides insights on the ancient dyeing engineering. Although nigh experiments use potent chemical reagents to shorten the process to a few minutes (similar in the hydrosulfite vat method, see S1 Appendix), successful dyeing has been achieved likewise in experiments based on materials that were available in antiquity [17–19,23,25]. The murex dye belongs to the 'vat dye' group that is non soluble in water, thus it requires an alkaline environment. This was achieved past adding various materials such equally natural natron, or forest ash of alkaline plants [xix,26,27], urine, or even broken shells (S1 Appendix). Reconstructing the reduction stage, which in modern vats is achieved by sodium hydrosulfite and requires non-aerobic weather condition, is much more complicated [17]. A number of options have been raised, including the fabric of the vessel itself (tin or lead, [27]), honey, or madder roots with bran (known as indigo reduction agents [28]), merely all failed in experiments. The merely successful reconstruction is based on the bacteria in the flesh of the snail itself [17–xix]. In this reconstruction, the dye-solution was heated at a moderate temperature (effectually 50°C) for a few days, until information technology turned yellowish, indicating a leuco (soluble) form, and that reduction was completed. In the last stage, after about three days, the fleece or material was dipped in the reduced dye-solution and then left to oxidize in the air. Once oxidation took place, the dye turned purple.

It is non entirely clear when murex was first used for dyeing, bur the first archaeological show that regards the imperial dyeing industry are indirect evidence which includes heaps of murex shells, that are dated to around the xix^th century BCE. In well-nigh cases, this early on evidence is associated with the Minoans [29–32]. Nonetheless, contempo archaeomalacological analyses raised the possibility of a multiregional origin of the purple dyeing industry, including regions outside the Aegean [33]. Direct testify to the apply of shellfish purple was identified in the islands of Santorini and Rhodes, where purple pigments from murex snail were establish in wall paintings dated to the 17th century BCE [34,35]. The earliest textual evidence for the use of true regal in the Near E is attribute to the murex shells according to textual context is from Akkadian tablets from Nuzi, Mesopotamia, dating to 1425 BCE (this identification is based on contextual and philological arguments [36,37]). Other early written sources are the Amarna letters dated to the 14^thursday century BCE, in which items made of wool dyed with the prestigious purple are described among other merchandise [38]. According to some scholars, the Phoenicians received their name because of their important function in the dyeing industry (assuming the original meaning of ϕoῖνιξ was "reddish-royal", [32,39]). The first use of the term 'royal purple' is constitute in a clay tablet from Knossos in Crete dated to the 13th century BCE [40,41]. In the Hebrew Bible, the words argaman and tekhelet announced adjacent and most probably represent a royal hue and a violet-blue hue respectively (like to the Akkadian words argamannu and takiltu [42]). It is widely accepted that both colors were based on murex snails, while tekhelet is specifically linked to Hexaplex trunculus by most scholars [43–45] (although it should be noted that the specific hue is however enigmatic [45]) Both hues are mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in relation to clothing of people of the highest social rank (for instance, the garments of the Loftier Priest, Exodus 28:6 [46], and the Midianite kings, Judges 8:26) and religious activities (for example, activities at the tabernacle, Exodus 35:35). Wool dyed with argaman and tekhelet was mentioned in Sennacherib's Cylinder among other expensive materials like talents of gold and argent that Hezekiah king of Judah gave him from his palace and the temple in Jerusalem [47]. Well-nigh of the textual evidence relating to royal regal comes from the Classical era. It too indicates that purple textiles were highly valued and served every bit a symbol of prestige, social condition and power. Among the various sources are Pliny the Elderberry [48], Aristo [22] and Vitruvius [49].

In contrast to the many sources that mention purple textiles and the dyeing manufacture, archaeological evidence is however extremely limited. Common evidence of the regal-dye manufacture in archaeological sites are the heaps of murex shells, from which the dye-glands were removed [25,50–52]. Such heaps, nevertheless, may exist evidence of other uses of the snails, including food, lime productions, ceramic temper material, decoration and more than [14,33,53,54]. Their association with the dyeing industry is typically based on archaeological indicators such as industrial facilities, working surfaces, indicative tools and alike [55]. Large quantities of crushed shells with a pigsty in the area of the hypobranchial gland besides suggest a deliberate bang-up activity as office of the dyeing manufacture [53]. However, in some cases crushed murex-shell deposits are difficult to interpret [33]. Some researchers propose a recycling hypothesis, according to which the waste from the purple-dye industry was used for other purposes [33,55].

Important directly evidence of the purple industry tin exist found in stains of purple on pot sherds. The dye remains are found in well-nigh cases on the upper part of ceramic basins, on the inside surface, the areas in which the reduced dye-solution was exposed to air, and underwent oxidation that turned it purple [19,56]. Pottery sherds stained with true imperial were found in Sarepta in Lebanon— 14^th–thirteen^th centuries BCE [57], Ugarit (Minet el-Beidha)— xv^th–thirteen^th centuries BCE [52], Tel Keisan— 11^th century BCE [19], Tel Shikmona— 10^th–9^th centuries BCE [58] and Tel Kabri— 7^th century BCE [19]. These finds indicate the important function of coastal sites in this industry.

Just a minor number of textiles dyed with true purple were found in excavations, and until this written report, the few that were found in State of israel were all dated to the Roman menstruation: two textiles from Masada [59,sixty] and 3 from a cavern in Wadi Murabba'at, in the Judean Desert [61]. It should be emphasized that the rarity of truthful purple textiles predominantly reflects the limited preservation of textiles in the archaeological record; nevertheless, within the aforementioned assemblages (Masada, Murabba'at and now Timna) truthful purple textiles are the rarest.

Similar pic also emerges from research in other regions of the aboriginal Onetime Earth, which yielded only scant remains of pre-Roman textiles dyed with shellfish-based dyes. The earliest truthful imperial textiles were found in Syria and are dated to the early second millennium BCE. These include finds from a burial at Chagar Bazar (18^th–16^thursday centuries BCE, [xv]), and samples preserved in gypsum found in Qatna'south palace [62]. The latter were found together with other precious artefacts, including golden beads and jewelry, and were associated with the royal elite [62]. Early on bear witness of true regal textiles too includes samples from a burial in Stamna (Aetolia, Western Greece) dated to the 12^thursday–11^th centuries BCE [63].

The archaeological finds and their context

Three of the many fragments of dyed textiles and fibers from Timna that were analyzed, yielded results compatible with truthful purple dyestuff (nos. 004, 017, 018; run across Figs two–four). They were found in the excavations of Surface area 13, Site 34 ("Slaves' Hill")—ane of the largest copper smelting camps in the region [64]. The finds came from a context close to boulder, defined as a "mixed" locus that represents a shallow degradation of waste embedded in ruddy sediments and crushed sandstone (Locus 515, Basket 5644).

The site was tightly dated to the late eleven^th–first one-half of the 10^th century BCE (early on Atomic number 26 Age) based on the results of excavations in several areas. These include a dozen of radiocarbon dates from curt-lived materials (mostly date seeds [64]), the study of pottery typology [65] and other considerations [66]. In add-on, as part of the current study we sent a fragment from one of the dyed items (no. 017) to exist directly dated by radiocarbon. The result (Table 1) is in perfect agreement with the previously published chronology of the site.

Sample no. 004 was selected from a small group of pink-purplish wool fibers (Fig 2), which were probably ripped from a fabric that did not survive. A microscopic examination indicated that the fibers were dyed earlier they were spun into threads, a standard procedure in the dyeing of wool [10,67]. Sample no. 017 was selected from ii threads with a Z-ply (s2Z), 63.eight mm long and 4.9 mm wide, with a pink-majestic edge (Fig 3). It is difficult to know the specific function of this string only we can assume that it does not come from a crude textile, but from a decorative fringe or a tassel, both common in the Timna textiles assemblage [68,69] and in the ancient world in general [70,71]. Sample no. 018 (Fig iv) was taken from a textile fragment (ane.two Ten 0.4 cm). The textile shows a weft-faced tabby weave with uncolored warp threads and decorative pink-purple weft threads. The threads are S-spun. We can presume that this fragment is part of decorative textile bands that are mutual in the Timna textiles [69]. Information technology is difficult to say with certainty whether all the samples are related to the same fabric, but this should not exist ruled out (particularly samples nos. 004 and 018 that gave like chemical results–see subsequently). The fiber was identified equally wool on the basis of the morphology of its internal layer as observed under a polarizing microscope (Zeiss Axioscope 5) at x500 magnification. Wool fibers (sheep in this case) are characterized by a unique cellular appearance of overlapping scale-like structure (Fig 5), which is unlike any other cobweb [72,73], including linen (also plant in the Timna assemblage together with goat hair [6]). Wool played an important role in the dyeing industry and was the best raw material for dyeing in the Levant prior to the introduction of cotton and silk [67,74–78]. This is because the protein composition of the fiber allows amend absorption of the dye than that of the linen fiber [79,80]. The coarse goat hair on the other hand, was not used for delicate or embellished textiles.

Methods

Although the composition of the murex dye is not completely clear [27], information technology is obvious that the final shade is afflicted by certain colorant components (chromatogram), which can be identified by HPLC analysis in a single measurement: indigotin (IND) and indirubin (INR). The ii are plant in found sources such as woad (Isatis tinctoria L.) and the indigo plant (Indigofera tinctoria L), besides as in several species of shellfish [81–83]. Other components that confer the purple color are present but in mollusk dyes: 6-monobromoindigotin (MBI), monobromoindirubin (MBIR), 6,6-dibromoindigotin (DBI), and six,six- dibromoindirubin (DBIR), which are the ones that confer the purple color [62,68,83,84]. Other minor components, such every bit isatinoids and indirubinoids, were also recognized [82], but since they are oft absent from archeological textiles, volition not be discussed here.

Identifying the organic dye colorants in archaeological textiles is a complex task due to the low concentration of the molecules in the fibers and the limited corporeality of material bachelor for subversive assay. In this study we used HPLC analysis, which is considered the nearly appropriate and reliable method for identifying dyes in archaeological textiles since 1985 [lxxx,85–89]. This method, which is based on chromatography, is efficient in separating and identifying a mixture of compounds and is usually used in analytical chemistry and biochemistry. It relies on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid solvent containing the sample mixture through a column filled with a solid adsorbent textile. Each component in the sample interacts slightly differently with the adsorbent material, causing different catamenia rates for the unlike components, and leading to the separation of the components as they period out of the column, then to be detected past a UV-Visible absorbance detector that quantifies the components in the solution [80,90]. Although the analysis is destructive, it tin place components that are present in infinitesimal amounts, and thus but very trivial quantities of the tested substance are required, ensuring minimal impairment with high degree of accuracy and separation adequacy, qualities that are crucial for the identification of minor components in archeological textiles.

The identification of dyes was based on a database containing known chemical components and wool that was dyed with known dyestuffs and analyzed past the authors prior to the electric current Timna enquiry [68], and on a series of analyses that were washed by the authors in a previous written report of wool that was dyed with each of the murex species (Hexaplex trunculus, Bolinus brandaris and Stramonita haemastoma), and analyzed under the same conditions equally the archaeological samples ([58,61]; S1 Appendix)

Extracts of dyed textiles were analyzed by the HPLC-DAD (High-Operation Liquid Chromatography with Diode Array Detector) organisation (Hitachi LaChrom Aristocracy Chromatography), at the HPLC Unit of the Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences at Bar-Ilan University. HPLC organisation running EZ Chrom Elite v. 3.2.1 software consisted of an L-2130 binary pump, an L-2200 autosampler, an 50-2300 column oven (column temperature of 30°C was used for all analyses), and an 50-2455 Diode Array Detector, gear up to obtain chromatogram spectra in the range of 200-700nm, with extracted chromatograms at 254nm, 454nm, and 554nm. The chromatographic column was a GraceSmart RP18, 5 μm, 250mm × four.6mm ID. In each exam, a characteristic chromatogram was obtained, and the color components were identified by the particulars of their retentivity time (R_t) and their feature absorbance spectra, including the wavelengths of the absorbance elevation in the UV-visible spectrum (λmax).

Extraction method

The dyes were extracted from the fibers with DMSO (Dimethyl sulfoxide) solvent, which was considered appropriate for indigoid dyes [35,91]. Samples weighing three mg each were placed in an Eppendorf test tube (1.v mL), along with 150 μl of DMSO. Each sample was heated to 95°C in a h2o bathroom for 10 minutes. By that time, the solution turned blueish, and was then separated from the settled sediment and transferred to a clean Eppendorf test-tube. Finally, the sample was subjected to centrifugation for 5 minutes at 12,000 g., and xx μl of the supernatant was injected into the HPLC system' HPLC.

HPLC assay protocol

The mobile phase for the protocol that was used in this study was made up of A: phosphoric acid 0.five% (west/v); B: methanol; and C: H₂O. The menstruation rate was held at ane ml/min, and the injection size was 25 μL. Gradient elution conditions are tabulated in Table 2.

Results

According to the analysis issue at 554 nm (Table 3), the archaeological samples were dyed with true majestic. They contain two molecules that are principal markers of this color, namely MBI and DBI. The chromatogram of sample no. 004 shows but ii pronounced peaks at 554 nm: MBI was detected at ten.75 R_t with a typical spectrum (242nm, 288 nm, 347, 608nm λ_max), and main peak at 14.40 R_t of DBI with a typical spectrum (292 nm, 307nm, 353 nm, 596nm λ_max). The other components did non appear in a significant amount. The chromatogram of sample no. 017 has a few peaks at 554 nm (Fig 6): IND was detected at 8.46 R_t and with a typical spectrum (242nm, 286 nm, 339 nm, 613nm λ_max), MBI was detected at x.68 R_t (242 nm, 289 nm, 346 nm 608 nm λ_max), DBI at 14.23 R_t with a typical spectrum (292 nm, 304nm, 350 nm, 603nm λ_max) and DBIR was detected at 20.three R_t with typical spectrum (304nm, 368nm, 553 nm λ_max). The chromatogram of sample no. 018 similar to sample 004 shows main peak of DBI at 14.40 R_t with a typical spectrum (291 nm, 302nm, 353 nm, 601nm λ_max) and modest acme at 10.7 of MBI (240nm, 347nm 610nm λ_max). Information technology can therefore exist determined with certainty that the fibers in all three samples were dyed with 18-carat shellfish dye.

Distinguishing between the three Mediterranean molluscan species, H. trunculus, B. brandaris and S. haemastoma, is not easy because numerous variables (due east.g. geographical location, historic period and sex of the snails, the dyeing process, analytical methods employed to record the composition etc.) may affect the reported composition of the purple dye [10,84,92]. Nevertheless, it is possible to see a articulate tendency with respect to the ratios of the dye substances in each species [27,35,58,61,84,91,93], that helps to identify the species of the murex used in the dyeing of the archaeological textiles with a high level of certainty.

Exam of the percentage of the colorants and the proportions of the components in chromatograms that were done past the authors in pervious analyses (Fig vii and S1 Appendix; [58,61,94]), which is in agreement with other previous studies (see for example: [35,84,91]), shows that in most cases H. trunculus contains relatively high concentration of IND (indigotin) and high concentration of MBI (monobromoindigotin) compound, while DBI (6,6-dibromoindigotin) is nowadays in relatively small quantities; in B. brandaris and S. haemastoma on the other manus, DBI compound is the nigh abundant (over threescore%), but the proportion of IND in dyes derived from these 2 mollusks is low (less than 5%) and it cannot always be detected in the chromatography (Fig 7; S1 Appendix: Table 1; see also [61,84,93,95,96]).

Fig vii. Relative proportions of dye components (IND; MBI; DBI; DBIR) at 554 nm in modern fleeces dyed with the 3 species of bounding main mollusks (the graph shows the average results of all the modern samples).

https://doi.org/x.1371/journal.pone.0245897.g007

Co-ordinate to the chromatogram of samples nos. 004 and 018 only two components were detected. The nearly arable colorant is DBI (85%-86%), followed by MBI (14%-xv%), while no IND and DBIR components were found in significant amounts (Table three). Hence, information technology can exist determined that samples were colored with a dye substance obtained from B. brandaris or Due south. haemastoma, which are characterized by a relatively high concentration of DBI compound and low concentration of IND (meet also [91]). The experimental dyeing with this species strengthens our conclusion, because while H. trunculus yielded more violet-blue hues due to the indigo compound, the two other species produce a more than pink-purple hue (Fig 8; S1 Appendix), due to the high concentration of the combined DBI and the DBIR components which are responsible for the characteristic reddish/pink hue (Table 3 [97]). Although a separation of B. brandaris and S. haemastoma species is not possible [35,91], it should be noted that according to the experimental dyeing results, South. haemastoma is a little easier to use than B. brandaris due to the difference in gland-size (an average of 0.6 gram in S. haemastoma, an average of 0.2 gram in B. brandaris), and information technology produces a hue of cherry-purple similar to that of the archaeological fiber (see S1 Appendix).

According to the chromatogram of sample no. 017, the DBI compound appears in a relatively loftier concentration (63.87%), which presents the relatively high peak areas measured at 554 nm, followed past MBI (15.60%), IND (xi.10%) and DBIR (9.40%) (Table three, Fig 7). Although all the components that are known in each of the three species of murex were plant in the same sample (include DBIR components, see Fig 6), the proportions that are seen in the chromatogram, with high concentration of DBI but still relatively big concentrations (above 8% each) of MBI, IND and DBIR, do not fit whatever of the typical murex species. This limerick could event, according to Koren (due east.k., [19,84]), from numerous variables in H. trunculus, including a blazon of H. trunculus that is indigo-poor and DBI- rich. Nevertheless, in our stance information technology is more than likely to be the result of a double dyeing method using either B. brandaris or S. haemastoma in combination with H. trunculus, a method that was mentioned by Pliny the Elder for obtaining reddish-purple colors (Plinius, NH: Nine, 62, 137). A serial of dyeing experiments that was conducted by the authors shows that although B. brandaris or Southward. haemastoma produce very beautiful colour, the quantity obtained is small. Adding a few glands of H. trunculus helps in increasing the amount of color that is absorbed into the fibres (S1 Appendix). Doumet [98] already noted the importance of the enzymes (purpurase) existing in H. trunculus for the dyeing process, and showed that a better result was achieved when 10% of H. trunculus glands were added to a B. brandaris or S. haemastoma bath dye (see likewise [21,99]). Nonetheless, information technology is important to refer to our proposal with circumspection. More than information about the origin of the purple pigments and the impact of the variables, is necessary before a articulate conclusion tin can be fatigued in the futurity.

Give-and-take

Observations on the royal dyeing industry of the early atomic number 26 historic period

The dyed textiles from Timna plant a corpus of paramount importance, every bit no parallels are known to usa today from the Southern Levant. Their analyses enhance our noesis of garment and cloth product technologies in the early Iron Age (~1100–900 BCE). The results of the present study indicate that the pigments present in three different samples of cobweb are remnants of true majestic dye. While pre-Roman evidence of the apply of this dye in the Southern Levant exists in the form of murex shells heaps (due east.g.[52,100] or stained ceramics (eastward.one thousand. [19,56,58,84]), until at present none of the surviving pre-Roman material fragments take tested positive for a truthful imperial dye.

According to our results the dyeing process of all samples was based on B. brandaris or S. haemastoma (the analytical results did not allow distinguishing between these two species). In i sample (no. 017) H. trunculus was most probably also used, and this sample therefore represents the double-dyeing procedure for the production of the expensive dye of Tyrian imperial, which was described past Pliny the Elderberry (NH: IX, 62, 137). Co-ordinate to Pliny, in this method the fiber was dipped into a get-go bath of 'pelagium' and and so into a second bath of 'bucinum'. Although the identification of these species is not certain, information technology is agreed by all researchers that Pliny refers to two different species of murex [ten,101–103]. It is important to emphasize that the ii species were added to heighten the ruddy color [19], as seems to be the example for the Timna sample (hither probably H. trunculus with B. brandaris or S. haemastoma).

It is reasonable to suggest that the Timna samples are a production of the dyeing manufacture in the Phoenician Coastal Plain. The three murex species discussed above are nowadays in the Mediterranean Sea and are non plant in the Scarlet Sea [104,105]. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the largest concentration of Iron Historic period sites with evidence of purple industry is located along the northern declension of the Southern Levant [15] (Fig 9). They include Tyre, Shikmona, Tel Kabri and Tel Keisen [sixteen,52,56,58,100,106]. The but other sites with possible evidence of Iron Age imperial industry currently known in the wider Eastern Mediterranean are Hala Sultan Tekke in Republic of cyprus [52] and Tel Garisa in modern solar day Israel [16].

Fig 9. Location of "Slaves' Hill" (Timna Valley) and other iron age sites with prove of the true imperial industry.

(Base map made with Natural Earth, costless vector and raster map information @ naturalearthdata.com).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245897.g009

Another species of murex—Virgin murex (Chicoreus virgineus, also from the family Muricidae)—is plant in the Ruby Sea [107]. Although there is no direct evidence of dyeing with this species, a few of its shells were reported from the Roman sites of Myos Hormos (Egypt) and the port of Hafun (Somalia), raising the possibility that it was used for dyeing [108]. However, the scarcity of the finds, coupled with the absenteeism of historical bear witness makes the possibility of the utilise of this snail in the product of the Timna samples much less likely.

It is of import to emphasize that in Egypt, only i site related to the royal industry has been constitute so far; information technology is dated to the Belatedly Bronze and the Roman periods (Marsa Matruh, [52]). Additionally, the identification of mollusk regal in Egyptian textiles is rare prior to the Roman Menstruation [52,109–111]. For case, in the Amarna textiles no indication of true regal was constitute [112], and the same is the instance for other assemblages of high quality textiles (related to the pharaohs and high officials) from Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom sites [113]. The exclusion of Egypt as the source of the royal dyed textiles of Timna is in accordance with our assumption that all wool textiles of this aggregation were not obtained from Egypt, which specialized in growing flax and the product of linen [68,69]

Observations on the early iron age social club of Timna Valley

The find of fibers dyed with truthful purple in Timna adds to a growing body of evidence for the complexity of the society operating the copper mines during the early on Iron Historic period [64,68,69]. This menstruum, which followed the collapse Arab republic of egypt and the end of its control over the Southern Levant [114], is typically considered an era of express inter-regional connections, although this is starting to change with the accelerate of the awarding of archaeological sciences [115]. The societies are assumed to be quite fragmented, and the timing of the emergence of local polities of historical significance, such as the kingdoms of ancient Israel, Edom and Moab, is hotly debated, as it has implications on our understanding of the historicity of the Old Testament (e.m. [116]).

The identification of the early Iron Age society of Timna Valley and the nearby regions with biblical Edom is discussed elsewhere ([117] and references therein)]. The discovery of true royal-dyed textiles renders further support to the proposition that this lodge was part of a kingdom (the Edomite Kingdom) already in this menstruation [117–119], as it provides potent evidence for the presence of aristocracy (meet also a study based on diet [120], and direct evidence for long-distance merchandise connections (meet also [68,118]). In that location is trivial doubt that the expensive true-royal garments were used equally a marker for social condition, and had a function in establishing a hierarchical social structure in the fledgling kingdom. In that regard, it is interesting to notation the biblical description of the kings of Midian–a neighboring kingdom to Edom (although without archaeological identification)–who wore "imperial [ארגמן] garments" (Judges eight:26). This reference is traditionally dated to the menstruation nether discussion, in which tribal nomadic societies consolidated into stiff polities, typically without leaving any conspicuous archaeological remains [121,122]. The uniqueness of the example of Edom is twofold, as it involves both an uncommonly rich archaeological record of nomads (the result of mining and smelting activities) and an unprecedented preservation of organic materials (the issue of the extreme arid climate). The latter provides a window into various aspects of life of the early Edomites, and–by proxy—of other peoples and cultures of the broader region in this period.

The true-purple dyed textiles were found inside industrial waste product, in association with smelting activities. This further stresses previous observations on the of import function of metalworkers within this society; the smelters, property knowledge of one of the most sophisticated crafts of the time, were part of—or in close clan with—the elite of the society, with access to excellent and exotic foods [120,123], and luxurious commodities, including those represented by the new finds. The new evidence besides provides insights into elite "fashion"—in early Iron Age Timna and probably beyond. In addition to the decorations in crimson and blue dyes from plant sources [68], we tin now conclude the use of decorations with the threads of the prestigious true imperial. Colored article of clothing was the preference of elite in the Ancient Near Eastern societies [70]; yet, nosotros know very little about the variety of decoration choices. In this report, sample no. 018, a busy textile, and sample no. 017 that seems to be an chemical element of a fringe or tassel, were probably part of a garment of a prestigious wardrobe [69,70]. Information technology is interesting to note that in all known cases, the archaeological textiles with prove of purple (from the Roman period) were non completely dyed with this expensive color, but incorporated imperial threads as just 1 element of the textile weaving (unremarkably in the weft), and sometimes simply in united nations-woven decorative elements [124]. In near cases these textiles are very delicate and stand for a high quality of weaving [xv]. The correlation between loftier-quality textiles and expensive dyestuff is in accordance with the textual prove (see details in the Introduction higher up).

To conclude, this is the showtime time that a 3000 years onetime wool textile was found in the Southern Levant with evidence of shellfish-based dyes. This find helps researchers to reconstruct the consummate chaîne opératoire of the truthful majestic manufacture of the Iron Age, starting with the archaeological evidence of beat out heaps in various sites along the Mediterranean declension, through finds of the dyeing vessels (stained ceramic basins), to the terminal product of textiles decorated with the most expensive dyestuff in the ancient world. Only three fragments survived, but they open a window into a wide range of social aspects, from the lives of Atomic number 26 Age aristocracy, to the means of establishing social condition in the kingdoms of the region, including those based on nomads [121].

Supporting information

Acknowledgments

The authors give thanks Vanessa A. Workman for her assistance in the study of the Timna Iron Historic period textile aggregation and Diana Medellin for her assist in the conservation of this assemblage. Cheers are also due to the Cardinal Timna Valley Project's staff, students and volunteers for their piece of work during the excavation seasons, and to Hagit Gal and Omer Armoza of the Timna Park for their kind support of our research in the region.

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Source: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0245897

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